Philosophy is a field of knowledge that studies human existence and knowledge through rational analysis. From the Greek, the term philosophy means “love of knowledge”.
According to the philosopher Gilles Deleuze (1925-1995), philosophy is the discipline responsible for the creation of concepts.
the question of philosophy is the singular point where the concept and the creation refer to each other. ” (Gilles Deleuze)
The main themes addressed by philosophy are: existence and the human mind, knowledge, truth, moral values, language, etc.
The philosopher is considered a sage, being one who reflects on these issues and seeks knowledge through philosophy.
Depending on the knowledge developed, philosophy has a range of currents and thoughts. Examples include Christian, political, ontological, cosmological, ethical, empirical, metaphysical, epistemological philosophy, etc.
Is it possible to define a concept of philosophy?
Different authors try to define the concept of philosophy, but there is no consensus or an exact definition of what Philosophy is essentially.
Some attempts to define the concept:
- “The real philosophy is to relearn to see the world.” (Maurice Merleau-Ponty)
- “Philosophy seeks to make existence transparent to itself.” (Karl Jaspers)
- “O philosophy, guide of life!” (Cicero)
- “Philosophy teaches to act, not to speak.” (Seneca)
- “Science is what you know. Philosophy is what you don’t know.” (Bertrand Russell)
- “Philosophy is an arduous and difficult path, but it can be taken by everyone, if they want freedom and happiness.” (Baruch de Spinoza)
- “If you want true freedom, you must make yourself a servant of philosophy.” (Epicurus)
- “Philosophy is the battle between the charm of our intelligence through language.” (Ludwig Wittgenstein)
- “Making fun of philosophy is, in fact, philosophizing.” (Blaise Pascal)
What is Philosophy for?
Through arguments that use reason and logic , philosophy seeks to understand human thought and the knowledge developed by societies.
Philosophy was essential for the emergence of a critical attitude about the world and men.
In other words, the philosophical attitude is part of the life of all human beings who question about their existence and also about the world and the universe.
This field of knowledge is so important that it has become a mandatory subject in the school curriculum, as well as several faculties of philosophy have been created.
Origin of Philosophy
Philosophy starts in antiquity, when city-states in Ancient Greece appear. Before that, thinking, human existence and the world’s problems were explained in a mythical way.
That is, the explanations were based on religion, mythology, the history of the gods and even the phenomena of nature.
Thus, with the rise of the Greek polis , philosophers, who at that time were considered to be sent from the gods, began to investigate and systematize human thought.
With this, several questions arise, which until that moment had no such rational explanation. Mythic thinking gave way to rational and critical thinking, and from there philosophy emerged.
Did you know?
The terms “philosophy”, “philosopher” and “mathematics” were created by the Greek pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras. According to him:
“ The philosopher does not own the truth, nor does he have all the knowledge in the world. He is just a person who is a friend of knowledge . ”
Periods, Philosophical Currents and Main Philosophers
Ancient Philosophy
The Ancient Philosophy appears in the VII century BC in Ancient Greece. Greek philosophy is divided into three periods:
- Pre-Socratic period (7th to 5th centuries BC);
- Socratic Period (5th to 4th century BC);
- Hellenistic period (4th century BC to 6th AD).
The main philosophical schools of that period were the Ionian School and the Eleata School or Italian School.
Philosophers stand out at the Ionian School:
- Tales of Miletus (624-546 BC) – first philosopher, he also devoted himself to mathematics, creating his famous theorem .
- Heraclitus (540 BC-470 BC) – “philosopher of fire”, said that the world was in a constant movement of transformation.
- Pythagoras (570-495 BC) – philosopher and mathematician, he is recognized as the author of the term “philosophy” (love of knowledge).
- Anaximander (610-546 BC) – important philosopher of Miletus, some of his observations on nature were confirmed by modern physics more than fifteen hundred years later.
- Anaximenes (588-524 BC) – was the first person to say that the moon reflected sunlight, based his philosophy on the element of air as the principle of all things.
At the Italian School (Escola Eleata), we have the philosophers:
- Parmenides (530-460 BC) – important Greek philosopher, is responsible for the distinction between appearance and reality, affirmed the illusory character of the senses.
- Zeno (490-430 BC) – following the thought of Parmenides, created the idea of a paradox represented by the race between Achilles and the turtle, in which Achilles never manages to reach it.
- Empedocles (490-430 BC) – was the creator of the theory of the four elements (fire, water, earth and air) that lasted for centuries.
- Gorgias (485-380 BC) – the most celebrated of the sophists, developed rhetoric (ability to argue) and stated that the truth is just a matter of convincing.
Medieval Philosophy
The Medieval philosophy developed in Europe between the centuries I and XVI. During the period, the theoretical foundations of Christian thought were built. The union between faith and reason is the hallmark of this philosophy.
It was divided into four periods:
- Philosophy of Apostolic Fathers (1st and 2nd centuries);
- Philosophy of the Apologist Fathers (3rd and 4th centuries);
- Patristic Philosophy (4th to 8th centuries);
- Scholastic Philosophy (9th to 16th century).
Philosopher Paulo de Tarsus stands out in the Philosophy of Apostolic Fathers. Philosophers stand out in the Philosophy of the Apologist Fathers: Justin Martyr, Origen of Alexandria and Tertullian.
In Patristic Philosophy, the greatest representative of this period was Saint Augustine of Hipona (354-430).
Finally, in Scholastic Philosophy we have St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) as the most important philosopher.
Modern Philosophy
The Modern Philosophy developed between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries. René Descartes (1596-1650) is considered the founder of modern philosophy with the creation of the Cartesian method.
It is the period of the emergence of science as it is understood today. The establishment of reason as capable of providing answers to human questions.
The main philosophical currents of that period were: Humanism, Scientificism, Rationalism, Empiricism and Enlightenment.
Some modern philosophers are:
- Nicolau Maquiavel (1469-1527) – author of the book The Prince , created the distinction between the moral of the State and the moral of the common individual. The expression “Machiavellian” as a synonym for something calculated and perverse, is based on the thought constructed in his book.
- Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) – French philosopher, dedicated himself to questioning human behavior and education.
- Francis Bacon (1561-1626) – is considered one of the fathers of modern science, his thought served as a basis for the development of empirical knowledge.
- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – Prussian philosopher, creator of transcendental idealism, sought to unite rationalist thinking and empiricist philosophy. His thinking is understood as one of the major milestones of modern philosophy.
- Montesquieu (1689-1755) – is the great defender of the tripartition of power (executive, legislative and judicial) as a way of guaranteeing a more just political system.
- Rousseau (1712-1778) – Enlightenment philosopher, stated that the human being is naturally good (good savage) and society and its institutions corrupts him.
- Voltaire (1694-1778) – was a precursor to the idea of freedom of expression, criticized the absolutist power and the influence of the Catholic Church on politics and on individual freedoms.
- Denis Diderot (1713-1784) – precursor philosopher of scientific materialism. He sought to substantiate atheism and anarchism.
- Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) – author of the sentence that states that man is the wolf of man . His book Leviathan is an important milestone in modern thought, states that society is greater than the sum of its individuals.
- John Locke (1632-1704) – his thinking about the natural right to property served as the basis for liberalism.
- Spinoza (1632-1677) – his criticism of traditional thinking about God stated that for divine perfection it was necessary to abandon the idea of a Deus persona (god with human attributes) and assume the idea of God as nature ( deus sive natura ). This thought led him to two processes of excommunication (Christianity and Judaism).
Contemporary Philosophy
The Contemporary Philosophy developed between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries.
It is worth mentioning the Frankfurt School, created in 1920 in Germany, having as main philosophers:
- Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) – dedicated himself to the study of aesthetics, was a great critic of positivism and the cultural industry developed by the capitalist system.
- Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) – critic of the philosophical tradition, developed several contributions about the dialectical materialism initiated by Marxist thought.
- Walter Benjamin (1892-1940) – is the great name of the Frankfurt School when it comes to studies on communication, mass culture and cultural industry.
The Frankfurt School was responsible for criticizing modern thinking and creating the basis for thinking developed in the 20th century.
During this period, many philosophical currents were developed:
- Marxism – socioeconomic analysis based on the thought of the German philosopher Karl Marx. Its main foundation is the division of society into two antagonistic classes (class struggle): the bourgeoisie and the working class.
- Positivism – current of thought that is based on Auguste Comte’s thinking. It presupposes the use of values based strictly on scientific knowledge.
- Utilitarianism – philosophical doctrine based on the idea of usefulness of human actions. These actions must be based on the idea of maximum production of well-being and happiness.
- Pragmatism – a school that states that concepts are anchored in their relationship with practice, how they are used and, from there, understood.
- Scientism – term used to solve practical problems through the scientific method.
- Phenomenology – current that affirms that the understanding of reality is given from “phenomena of consciousness” and only then becomes experience.
- Nihilism – current of thought that denies or questions the existence of social things and institutions.
- Existentialism – philosophical current that has several conceptions and concepts. It is based on the idea that the individual gives meaning to his own existence, with no essence that pre-determines the human being.
- Materialism – thinking that is based on the conception that all reality is inscribed in material relations.
- Structuralism – current of thought that understands that the interpretation of reality depends on structures of relationships that define them.
In addition to the Frankfurt School philosophers, the following deserve mention:
- Michel Foucault (1926-1984) – French philosopher, studied the forms of control from the institutions and their transition from discipline to surveillance.
- Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) – German philosopher, critic of Christian morality, is the phrase that states that God is dead.
- Karl Marx (1818-1883) – German thinker founded the foundations of socialism that served as a theoretical guide for the Russian Revolution of 1917. His thinking was fundamental for the development of the Frankfurt School and the criticism of the postmodern capitalist system.
- Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) – French existentialist philosopher known for his social criticism and for dedicating himself to the study of human existence. It is the phrase that states that human beings are condemned to be free.
- Auguste Comte (1798-1857) – creator of positivist philosophy. It played a fundamental role in the advancement of the humanities. The motto of the Brazilian national flag was extracted from his thought: “order and progress”.
- Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) – German philosopher, founded existentialism from his concept of being-in-the-world ( dasein ). He was widely criticized for joining the Nazi party before World War II.
- Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) – naturalized British Austrian philosopher, is one of the founders of the philosophy of language. His book Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was written during his participation in the front in the First World War.
- Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) – German thinker known as the “philosopher of pessimism”, Schopenhauer claimed that suffering is an inherent condition of human life.
- Zygmunt Bauman (1925-2017) – one of the greatest thinkers of the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. He stated that the solidity of modern structures had given way to the liquidity of the new times when human relations were ruled by inconsistency and instability.
Phrases of Philosophers
Check out some phrases from philosophers about the concept of philosophy:
- “ Admiration is characteristic of the philosopher’s nature; and philosophy stems only from amazement . ” (Plato)
- “If you want true freedom, you must make yourself a servant of philosophy .” (Epicurus)
- ” Superstition sets the world on fire, philosophy puts them out .” (Voltaire)
- “ Philosophy is not taught, it is taught to philosophize ”. (Kant)
- “ A little philosophy leads the human mind to atheism, but the depth of philosophy leads it to religion .” (Bacon)
- ” The trick of philosophy is to start with something so simple that nobody finds it worthy of note and end with something so complex that nobody understands .” (Bertrand Russell)
- “ Philosophy is what distinguishes us from savages and barbarians; nations are all the more civilized and cultured the better their men philosophize . ” (Descartes)
- “ We have a very pleasant medicine in philosophy, because in others, we feel well-being only after healing; it does well and heals at the same time . ” (Michel de Montaigne)
- ” Man’s first reasoning is of a sensitive nature … our first masters of philosophy are our feet, our hands, our eyes .” (Rousseau)
- “ Philosophy is the art of forming, of inventing, of making concepts … The philosopher is the friend of the concept, he is a potential concept … Creating ever new concepts is the object of philosophy .” (Deleuze and Guattari)