The modern philosophy begins in the fifteenth century when starts the Modern Age. It remains until the 18th century, with the arrival of the Contemporary Age.
It marks a transition from medieval thought, based on faith and relationships between men and God, to anthropocentric thinking, a mark of modernity, which elevates humanity to a new status as the great object of study.
Rationalism and empiricism, currents of thought built in the period, demonstrate this change. Both aim to provide answers about the origin of human knowledge. The first associating with human reason and the second, based on experience.
Historical context
The end of the Middle Ages was based on the concept of theocentrism (God at the center of the world) and the feudal system, ended with the advent of the Modern Age.
This phase brings together several scientific discoveries (in the fields of astronomy, natural sciences, mathematics, physics, etc.) which gave way to anthropocentric thinking (man at the center of the world).
Thus, this period was marked by the revolution in philosophical and scientific thinking. This is because it left aside the religious explanations of the medieval and created new methods of scientific investigation. It was in this way that the power of the Catholic Church weakened more and more.
At this time, humanism has a centralizing role offering a more active position for human beings in society. That is, as a thinking being and with greater freedom of choice.
Several transformations occurred in European thought at the time, of which the following stand out:
- the transition from feudalism to capitalism;
- the rise of the bourgeoisie;
- the formation of modern national states;
- absolutism;
- mercantilism;
- Protestant reform;
- the great navigations;
- the invention of the press;
- the discovery of the new world;
- the beginning of the Renaissance movement.
Main features
The main characteristics of modern philosophy are based on the following concepts:
- Anthropocentrism and Humanism
- Scientificism
- Valuing nature
- Rationalism (reason)
- Empiricism (experiences)
- Freedom and idealism
- Renaissance and Enlightenment
- Secular (non-religious) philosophy
Main Modern Philosophers
Check out the main philosophers and the philosophical problems of the Modern Age below:
Michel de Montaigne (1523-1592)
Inspired by Epicureanism , Stoicism , Humanism and Skepticism, Montaigne was a French philosopher, writer and humanist. He worked with themes of the human, moral and political essence.
He was the creator of the textual genre personal essay when he published his work “ Ensaios ”, in 1580.
Nicholas Machiavelli (1469-1527)
Considered “Father of Modern Political Thought”, Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher and politician of the Renaissance period.
He introduced moral and ethical principles to politics. He separated politics from ethics, a theory analyzed in his most emblematic work ” The Prince “, published posthumously in 1532.
Jean Bodin (1530-1596)
French philosopher and jurist, Bodin contributed to the evolution of modern political thought. His “theory of the divine right of kings” was analyzed in his work ” The Republic “.
According to him, political power was concentrated in a single figure that represents the image of God on Earth, based on the precepts of the monarchy.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
British philosopher and politician, Bacon collaborated with the creation of a new scientific method. Thus, he is considered one of the founders of the “inductive method of scientific investigation”, based on observations of natural phenomena.
In addition, he presented the “theory of idols” in his work “ Novum Organum ”, which, according to him, altered human thought as well as hampered the advancement of science.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
“Father of Physics and Modern Science”, Galileo was an Italian astronomer, physicist and mathematician.
He collaborated with several scientific discoveries in his time. Much of it was based on the heliocentric theory of Nicolau Copernicus (the Earth revolves around the sun), thus contradicting the dogmas exposed by the Catholic Church.
In addition, he was the creator of the “experimental mathematical method”, which is based on the observation of natural phenomena, experiments and valorization of mathematics.
René Descartes (1596-1650)
French philosopher and mathematician, Descartes is recognized by one of his famous phrases: “ I think, therefore I am ”.
He was the creator of Cartesian thought, a philosophical system that gave rise to Modern Philosophy. This theme was analyzed in his work ” The Discourse on the Method “, a philosophical and mathematical treatise, published in 1637.
Baruch Espinosa (1632-1677)
Dutch philosopher, Espinosa based his theories on radical rationalism. He criticized and fought against superstitions (religious, political and philosophical) that, according to him, would be based on the imagination.
From this, the philosopher believed in the rationality of a transcendental and immanent God identified with nature, which was analyzed in his work ” Ethics “.
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
French philosopher and mathematician, Pascal contributed to studies based on the search for truth, reflected in human tragedy.
According to him, reason would not be the ideal end to prove the existence of God, since the human being is powerless and is limited to appearances.
In his work “ Pensamentos ”, he presents his main questions about the existence of a God based on rationalism.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
English philosopher and political theorist, Hobbes sought to analyze the causes and properties of things, leaving aside metaphysics (essence of being).
Based on the concepts of materialism , mechanism and empiricism, he developed his theory. In it, reality is explained by the body (matter) and its movements (combined with mathematics).
His most emblematic work is a political treatise called ” Leviathan ” (1651), mentioning the theory of the ” social contract ” (existence of a sovereign).
John Locke (1632-1704)
English empiricist philosopher, Locke was a forerunner of many liberal ideas thus criticizing monarchical absolutism.
According to him, all knowledge came from experience. With that, human thought would be based on the ideas of sensations and reflection where the mind would be a “blank slate” at the moment of birth.
Thus, ideas are acquired throughout life from our experiences.
David Hume (1711-1776)
Scottish philosopher and diplomat, Hume followed the line of empiricism and skepticism . He criticized dogmatic rationalism and inductive reasoning, analyzed in his work ” Investigation About Human Understanding “.
In this work, he defends the idea of the development of knowledge from the sensitive experience, where the perceptions would be divided into:
impressions (associated with the senses);
ideas (mental representations resulting from impressions).
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
French philosopher and jurist of the Enlightenment , Montesquieu was a defender of democracy and a critic of absolutism and Catholicism.
Its greatest theoretical contribution was the separation of state powers into three powers (executive power, legislative power and the judiciary). This theory was formulated in his work The Spirit of Laws (1748).
According to him, this characterization would protect individual freedoms, while avoiding abuse by government officials.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
French philosopher, poet, playwright and historian was one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment, a movement based on reason.
He defended the monarchy ruled by an enlightened sovereign and individual and thought freedom, while criticizing religious intolerance and the clergy.
According to him, the existence of God would be a social necessity and, therefore, if it were not possible to confirm his existence, we would have to invent him.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
French Enlightenment philosopher and encyclopedist, alongside Jean le Rond D’Alembert (1717-1783), he organized the ” Encyclopedia “. This 33-volume work brought together knowledge from different areas.
It counted on the collaboration of several thinkers, such as Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. This publication was essential for the expansion of modern bourgeois thought of the time and of the Enlightenment ideals.
Rousseau (1712-1778)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss social philosopher and writer and one of the most important figures in the Enlightenment movement. He was a defender of freedom and a critic of rationalism.
In the area of philosophy, he investigated themes about social and political institutions. He affirmed the kindness of the human being in a state of nature and the factor of corruption originated by society.
His most outstanding works are: “ Discourse on the origin and the foundations of inequalities between men ” (1755) and “ Social Contract ” (1972).
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
Scottish philosopher and economist, Smith was the leading theorist of economic liberalism , thus criticizing the mercantilist system .
His most emblematic work is the “ Essay on the wealth of nations ”. Here, he defends an economy based on the law of supply and demand, which would result in the self-regulation of the market and, consequently, supply social needs.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
German philosopher with an Enlightenment influence, Kant sought to explain the types of judgments and knowledge by developing a “critical examination of reason”.
In his work “ Critique of pure reason ” (1781) he presents two forms that lead to knowledge: empirical knowledge ( a posteriori ) and pure knowledge ( a priori ).
In addition to this work, the ” Foundation of the Metaphysics of Customs ” (1785) and the ” Critique of practical reason ” (1788) deserve mention .
In short, Kantian philosophy sought to create an ethics whose principles are not based on religion, but rather on knowledge based on sensitivity and understanding.