The Protestant Reformation was the great religious transformation of the modern age, for it broke the unity of Christianity in the West.
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther fixed the 95 theses on the door of the castle church that criticized certain practices of the Catholic Church. Today, Lutherans from all over the world celebrate “Protestant Reformation Day” on this day.
In 2017, the Protestant Reformation celebrated 500 years.
Origin of the Protestant Reformation
The process of monarchical centralization that dominated Europe since the end of the Middle Ages, made the relationship between kings and the Church tense. Until this moment, the Catholic Church centralized the spiritual dominion over the population and the political-administrative power of the kingdoms.
The Church – possessing large tracts of land – received feudal tributes controlled in Rome by the Pope. With the strengthening of the Absolutist National State, this practice came to be questioned by monarchs who wished to retain these taxes in the kingdom.
Peasants were also unhappy with the Church. In Germany, monasteries and bishoprics had immense properties. Often, bishops and abbots lived at the expense of city and countryside workers.
The Church condemned nascent capitalist practices, including “usury” – charging interest on loans – considered sin. He defended commercialization without the right to profit and the “fair price”. This reduced the investment power of the mercantile and manufacturing bourgeoisie.
Thomism and Augustinian Theology
Within the Church itself, two theological systems, Thomism and that of Augustinian theology, faced each other. However, the demoralization of the clergy, which despite condemning usury and distrusting profit, came with the practice of trade in ecclesiastical goods.
The clergy used their authority to obtain privileges and the sale of positions in the Church was a common practice since the end of the Middle Ages.
The biggest scandal was the indiscriminate sale of indulgences, that is, the forgiveness of sins in exchange for payment in cash to religious.
Luther’s Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was initiated by Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German Augustinian monk, and professor at the University of Wittenberg . Critical, he denied some common practices proclaimed by the Church.
In 1517, revolted by the sale of indulgences carried out by the Dominican João Tetzel, Luther wrote in a document with 95 points criticizing the Church and the Pope himself.
These 95 theses were reportedly nailed to a church door in order for his students to read and prepare for a class debate. However, some students decided to print them and read them to the population, thus spreading the censures to the Catholic Church.
In 1520, Pope Leo X drafted a bull condemning Luther and demanding his retraction. Luther burned the bull in public which made the situation worse.
In 1521, Emperor Charles V called an assembly, called “Diet of Worms”, in which the monk was considered a heretic.
Welcomed by the German nobility, he took refuge in the castle of Wartburg. There, he dedicated himself to the translation of the Bible from Latin to German, and to develop the principles of the new religion.
In 1530, the Augsburg Confession , written by Luther’s disciple Melanchthon , founded Lutheran doctrine.
Religious wars followed, which were only concluded in 1555, for the ” Peace of Augsburg “. This agreement established the principle that each ruler within the Holy Empire could choose his religion and that of his subjects.
In each region, Lutheranism took on different characteristics: in the Holy Empire it had the leadership of Martin Luther.
In France and the Netherlands, Luther’s principles were extended by Calvin. In England, conflicts between the king and the Church gave rise to Anglicanism .
Calvinism
Luther’s revolt and ideals spread across the European continent.
His ideas were reformulated by some of his followers, particularly by the Frenchman João Calvino (1509-1564).
Belonging to the bourgeoisie and influenced by Humanism and Lutheran theses, Calvin became an ardent defender of new ideas.
He wrote the “Institution of the Christian religion”, which became the catechism of Calvinists. Persecuted, he took refuge in Geneva, Switzerland, where the Reformation had been adopted.
It streamlined the reform movement through new principles, completing and expanding Lutheran doctrine.
He determined that there would be no image in the churches, nor any vested priests. The Bible was the basis of religion, and there was no need for even a regular clergy.
For Calvin, salvation did not depend on the faithful, but on God, who chooses the people who should be saved (doctrine of predestination).
The Calvinism expanded rapidly across Europe, more than Lutheranism. It reached the Netherlands and Denmark, as well as Scotland, whose followers were called Presbyterians; in France, Huguenots; and in England, Puritans.
Counter-reform
Contrarreforma was the movement that emerged in Europe as a result of the expansion of Protestantism. In 1534, it was founded by Inácio de Loyola, a former Spanish soldier of the Basque religion, a religious order called “Company of Jesus”.
Organized according to the military model, the Company formed its members, the Jesuits, as “soldiers of Christ”. These enjoyed the confidence of the pope and sought to combat Protestantism through the teaching and expansion of the Catholic faith.
It was decided to reactivate the Holy Office, created during the 13th century, responsible for the Court of the Inquisition. Its function was to judge those who strayed from the Church’s dogma.
In 1545 and 1563, the Council of Trent was held , with representatives of the Catholic Church from across Europe. Members of the Lutheran and Orthodox churches were also present.
From this Council, a reformed Church emerged. The “Index” was also created, a list of books prohibited by the Church, including scientific books (by Galileu, Giordano Bruno, among others). The formation of the clergy should be more rigorous and the sale of religious offices was prohibited.
The Counter did not destroy Protestantism, but limited its expansion. Its success is found in Latin America, the place with the highest concentration of Catholics in the world.
Vestibular Issues
1. (PUC-MG) In 1517, in the Holy Roman-German Empire, the reform movement led by Martin Luther began, who defended:
a) faith as a fundamental element for the salvation of individuals.
b) relaxation of the customs of the members of the Church at that time.
c) mandatory confession, fasting and worship of saints and martyrs.
d) the principle of predestination and the pursuit of profit through work.
e) the recognition of the monarch as supreme head of the Church.
Answer
a) Faith as a fundamental element for the salvation of individuals.
2. (UEL) Among the factors that contributed to the spread of the Protestant Reform Movement in the early sixteenth century, we highlight:
a) the restriction of freedom of criticism caused by the Cultural Renaissance.
b) the decline of urban particularism that favored the appearance of Universities.
c) the political abuse committed by the Society of Jesus.
d) the political conflict observed in both Germany and France.
e) the inadequacy of Catholic religious theories for the progress of commercial capitalism.
Answer
e) The inadequacy of Catholic religious theories for the progress of commercial capitalism.To shareSubmitEmail